The Nature of Diamonds

As the hardest natural material on the planet, diamonds have always held a unique position amongst the minerals of the earth. Some diamonds found in South America and Africa were actually created in outer space and deposited on Earth as a result of the asteroid showers that took place about 3 billion years ago. However, the vast majority of the diamonds on the planet were created over the course of millions of years just below the continental plates of the Earth’s crust.

While most of the world considers the word diamond almost synonymous with their use in jewelry, more than 80% of the world’s diamonds have industrial not commercial gemstone applications. Due to a diamond’s hardness and its ability to with stand high temperatures, most industrial diamond is embedded in the grinding, drilling cutting and polishing tools that power industry. With the creation of synthetic, man made diamonds more applications in the electronics and computer industries have become possible.

The history of diamonds as gemstones begins in India at least 3000 years ago, where they were used as adornments for religious statutes. Until the 18th century, India was the primary source for the world’s diamonds, being replaced at that time by Brazil. In the late 19th century South Africa became the primary source of diamonds, and up until today South Africa still accounts for almost half of the world’s diamonds. Many other countries contribute to the balance of diamonds in the world, including Russia, Australia, Canada, the Congo and Brazil. While the diamonds used as gemstones are primarily white, diamonds come in a variety of colors ranging from black and varying shades of brown, yellow, and pink. There are also very rare instances where green, blue, and red diamonds have been found. This last group of diamonds, those with a color other than white are sometimes called “fancies” or “fancy colored diamonds” and depending on the exact shade or color of the diamond command a premium price way in excess of what a similar white diamond might command.

Diamond in its raw form is called “rough diamond” and in many instances looks nothing like its brilliant and sparkling cousin. After being taken from the mines this “rough diamond” is sorted and graded by its size and potential shape and quality. It is then sold or traded through a series of dealers before ending up in a diamond-cutting factory where it is polished into the form that most people are familiar with. This done mostly in Europe, specifically Antwerp, Belguim where about 80% of all rough diamond is traded. The vast majority of diamonds are then sent to cutting factories, smaller stones going to India and the larger staying in Antwerp, or going to other major cutting centers in Israel or New York. Today, with modern methods of shaping and faceting the stones, diamonds are polished to near mathematical perfection guaranteeing brilliance, proportion and luster. These polished diamonds are then resorted and graded by their shape, size, color and clarity to be sold to dealers all over the world where they are ultimately used to create all the many different styles and types of jewelry that are available to the public.

The business of Diamonds is truly a global business with sales of all grades of diamond totaling more almost $9 billion US dollars a year. The growth of this business has been clearly fueled by the increased affluence of societies all over the world and their desire to own and wear gem quality diamonds as well as the many industrial uses this unique mineral provides.

The Nature of Silver

Silver has been mined since the beginning of time. Silver mines in what is now Turkey had large scale silver mining operations as long ago as 2500BC. Silver was used in the production of plates, coins and jewelry in both the ancient Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. Greek and later Spanish silver mines provided more than 1000 onzes of silver per year to fuel the world ‘s uses of silver for the first 1000 years after the birth of Christ. After the discovery of the New World in 1492, silver production grew as the world’s appetite and uses for silver grew. By 1800 more than 1.5 million troy onzes were taken from mines in Mexico with additional amounts being mined in both Peru and Bolivia. In addition through out the 19th and 20th century significant amounts of silver were discovered and mined in both the United States and Canada.

Of the three precious metals platinum, gold and silver, silver is easily the most abundant. With mines producing more than 20 tons of silver a year, it is used in the fabrication and manufacture of everything from coins and jewelry to photography and medicine. Because it is an excellent conductor of electricity, it also has numerous uses in the electronics, nuclear and auto industry. Silver’s overall use in the jewelry industry continues to grow as fashion trends continue to favor a white metal over yellow and as the other two precious metals, platinum and gold, become more expensive.

Silver is truly a white metal and with the advances in tarnish resistant silver alloy, it is easy to maintain. Because it is less expensive and lighter in weight than is either platinum or gold, jewelry fashioned in silver can be made more substantial and durable. Relative to gold it has a lower melting temperature and thus can be combined with yellow gold to create “two tone” or multicolored jewelry. The silver used in jewelry is traditionally a mixture of pure silver or fine silver and copper with silver being 92.5% of the mixture and copper the remaining 7.5%. This combination is called sterling silver.

Sterling silver has come a long way in the manufacture of jewelry. Today, in addition to using only sterling silver in the creation of jewelry, it is also combined with diamonds, many different types of precious (ruby, emerald, sapphire) and semi precious stones to create a line of high fashion jewelry. Silver is featured prominently in the designs of many of the world’s finest designers and its use in high end designer jewelry continues to grow as fine jewelry stores like Tiffany and Cartier expand their use of the metal. Jewelry made from sterling silver is both durable and affordable and can be an attractive alternative to almost any piece of jewelry made from gold or platinum.

To Platinum or Not to Platinum

In the almost fifty years that my family has been in jewelry manufacturing business I‘ve seen jewelry fashion trends come and go, from the heavy 14kt yellow gold “door knocker’ type earrings of the 1960’s to the current fashion trends of silver, white gold, and platinum. Platinum’s history dates back to the time of the Inca’s in the pre Columbian society of Ecuador, but was not introduced to Europe until the mid 1500’s. While first discovered in South America, today the vast majority of platinum is mined in South Africa, with substantial quantities also coming from Russia and Canada. The are even small amounts of platinum mined in the United States.

Platinum is truly a rare metal with less that 2 ½ tons of the metal being produced worldwide each year, and per onze or unit it has always been the most expensive of the three precious metals. By comparison the United States alone produces more than 1200 tons of silver yearly. Outside of its use in the jewelry industry, platinum has a variety of other uses, not the least of which is in the automobile industry as a catalyst used in the assembly of catalytic converters. Platinum is also used in the manufacture of various electronics, medicines, and auto parts.

While today’s fashion trends favor a white metal over yellow, platinum has many other unique qualities which make it ideal for use in the jewelry industry. Platinum is an extremely dense metal and per unit is twice the weight of gold. This make a platinum piece of jewelry twice as heavy as the same piece in either white or yellow gold. Because of the denseness of the metal it will usually wear better and last longer. It is an extremely strong metal and platinum pieces can be fashioned more delicately and intricately than gold pieces with no fear of compromising the integrity or strength of the jewelry. For example, the screw posts on a pair of platinum earrings will maintain the screw thread longer than those on the same gold posts.

There is also a much greater percentage of platinum in a platinum piece of jewelry that gold in a gold piece of jewelry. Traditionally platinum jewelry is 90 to 95% platinum with 5 to 10% alloy added to the platinum to make it easier to fabricate and work with. Even 18kt gold, on the other hand is only 75% gold, with the remaining 25% a mixture of different alloys which are used for the same purpose in addition to turning yellow gold to white gold. Because Platinum is naturally a silvery white metal and does not oxidize or change color it will retain its luster for a very long time. All white gold on the other hand is plated with a metal called rhodium at the time of its manufacture and will need to be replated from time to time.

Jewelry trends do come and go, but platinum has always been used in the most highly fashioned and expensive pieces of jewelry. Whether from Harry Winston or Tiffany, Van Cleef & Arpels or Cartier, platinum has always held a special place for designers in their creation of some of the worlds most spectacular pieces of jewelry. Platinum jewelry when combined with either diamonds or colored stones give thoses stones added importance and luster due to the reflective qualities of the metal. Platinum brings out the specialness of each stone by focusing your attention to the sparkle of a white diamond in a perfectly white metal. It enhances the color of any stone, by offering a stark contrast with its own luster of pure platinum. Jewelry made from platinum will offer its owner a lifetime of use and pleasure and provide an heirloom worth passing to the next generation.

The Mathematics of Jujutsu

In the 2nd century B.C. the great Greek mathematician Euclid, said, “The laws of nature are but the mathematical thoughts of God”. Whether we believe in a divinity or not it is interesting that over 2000 years ago Euclid understood how thoroughly mathematics permeates our lives. The foundation of many of the world’s greatest achievements could not have been accomplished without the application of mathematical formulas and principles. The physical laws of mathematics and nature were created by the effects of gravity on the earth and have been in existence since the beginning of time. Over the millenniums many scientists and mathematicians from Euclid to Aristotle, from Newton and Einstein have written about and expanded our knowledge of how mathematics affects our daily lives. The application of their discoveries has changed every facet of our lives.

Mathematics in all its forms has played a part in the discovery and construction or manufacture of everything from electricity to rocket ships and skyscrapers to automobiles. All the physical laws of nature whether gravity or friction, motion or energy can be defined and measured by mathematical formula. Using these laws and the mathematical formulas that explain them engineers build bridges that carry the weight of cars, busses and trucks while at the same time withstand all the pressures of wind, rain and snow. They are able to build tall building that don’t topple or collapse under their own weight or the forces of mother nature. These same laws teach us how to execute a throw, how and where to unbalance, and where is the most efficient use of our strength.

In 1687 Sir Isaac Newton published “Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica” one of the most famous books in the history of science and the foundation for the worlds understanding of motion and gravity. Newton’s “ Three laws of motion”, his explanation, formulas and the ability to scientifically measure the role of force, gravity, momentum and friction on any activity leads us to our best and most efficient application of any movement or technique in the martial arts. Using Newton’s laws all the many facets of the martial arts become understandable, measurable, and most importantly explainable. The why, how and where of any technique can be evaluated. They can be practiced and understood from both a mechanical and intellectual perspective. It doesn’t matter if we are talking about the atemi of karate, the nagewaza and newaza of judo, the tenkan of aikido, or the ju of jujutsu, all follow Newton’s laws.

While this does not remove all the obstacles from learning and applying techniques, it can make that path more understandable and enjoyable. Teaching the body how to move, when to move and where to move instantaneously and without thought still requires years of training even when you understand all of these things intellectually. Science, in all its forms, adds to our understanding of why and how things need to be done. It can lead us to the most efficient use of, and application of any technique. It should shorten the length of time it takes for us to understand these things and appreciate the dedication of those who have spent years learning and now teaching and mentoring those techniques. Finally, and most importantly, it opens up the study of martial arts to everyone because if there are any “secrets” in the martial arts, they can all be discovered through time and the science behind each technique.

The Science of Body Mechanics and Motion

The human body is, in one sense, a very sophisticated multilevel machine. At its very core it is series of interconnected bones which is defined as its skeleton. The bones of the skeleton are connected together by a series of joints or levers which gives the skeleton the ability to bend the bones of the body. These joints are located throughout the body and are what gives our head, hips, ankles and wrists the ability to swivel, and our fingers, elbows and knees the ability to bend. Attached to the skeleton are muscles, fibers and ligaments in varying patterns, sizes and lengths, which gives this skeleton the ability to lift its arm, to walk and run, to grasp things in our hands and move and be flexible in all the ways that we accustomed to. The way, combination and angle at which these muscles and ligaments are attached to the various bones of the skeleton determines how much force, at what angle and where that force needs to be directed for the smooth and efficient movement to occur. For most healthy people the grasping of a fork, walking, the lifting of an arm or throwing a baseball is painless and occurs with little or no thought. The scientific study of human motion, our ability to move and control our movements, to gab and pull, bend, lift and turn, to do all those things which we take for granted is called kinesiology. The study of the actual mechanics of how that motion occurs, how much force and where and at what angle that force needs to be applied to a particular skeletal or muscle group is call biomechanics, and in this case, the biomechanics of human motion. Any study of the martial arts would be incomplete without an understanding of these two fields of study. We use the mechanical principles of these sciences every day in almost every one of our daily activities, even doing something as simple as opening a door.

Doors come in many sizes and weights. There are hollow core doors and doors that are solid. Doors made from metal, wood and some even filled with cement. However, even a heavy door can be opened easily. Several variables will determine how easily. The position of the hinges on the door connecting it to the doorframe, the position of the hinges on the door frame connecting it to the door, the angle of those hinges joining the door to the doorframe, and where exactly on the door is it pushed when we wish to open it are all relevant when we attempt to open the door. It is the connection and the position of the hinges which allow the door to hang straight, to put it in a balanced position. If the hinges are not connected properly, not at the correct angle from the door frame to the door and visa versa the door does not hang straight and it becomes more difficult to open. Balance and unbalance is created by position. Even if the door is balanced, where we push on the door is as important as the door being balanced. All doors are manufactured with the doorknob being placed at a right angle (90 Degrees) to the mid point between the two hinges and at the exact opposite side of the door as to where the hinges have been placed. It is because the angle and placement of the doorknob are mechanically correct that we can use the balance of the door to open it without effort.

In the biomechanics of the martial arts, it is the position and angle of the tai sabaki that brings unbalance to an uke, and the mechanically correct angle and placement of tori’s hands on a joint or muscle group which causes the pain and lose of center which allows the tori to absorb, assimilate and counter the uke’s attack. There is a mechanically correct position for each action in the martial arts. Without an understanding of this position the more strength is needed to overcome the strength and balance of the uki. Using the principles of kinesiology and human biomechanics, tori needs little or no strength in creating the most efficient and powerful application of his technique.

The Science Behind The Martial Arts

It has always been mans curiosity to explore the functions and structure of his own body. While the English words anatomy and physiology have their origin in the Greek language ,where the study of these sciences began in the 4th century BCE, work in both anatomy and physiology began in Egypt as long ago as 1600BCE. China and India have similiar traditions that date back to 2000BCE. Japan’s introduction into these sciences came from China in the 7th century. All of these countries have a long history of both armed and unarmed combat and their knowledge of both anatomy and physiology influenced they way they fought and the fighting techniques that they developed.

While every technique may have hundreds of variations, the laws of science and the human body limit the ways these techniques can be applied without injury. This knowledge of both anatomy and physiology, the understanding of how the body could and could not move, how joints function, the nature and placement of the major and minor organs and the strengths and weaknesses of the different muscle groups in the body all contributed to the development of more effective and lethal ways of both armed and unarmed combat.

In Japan, with the development of Sumo, this understanding of how the body works and moves, led to the creation of techniques that attacked specific parts of the body. Without an understanding of how joints function, both kansetsuwaza and Kote gaeshi become useless and ineffective. There would be no effective sword technique without an understanding of how the major muscles groups in the legs, hips and shoulders contribute to the coordinated movement of the body and without this understanding there is no understanding of balance and throwing technique.

Conversely, the greater your understanding of these sciences and their application to the martial arts, the easier it is to defend from any attack. Knowing the most effective way of applying a technique makes it more difficult to have that technique applied to you. The mechanics of the martial arts, what position to be in, where your body is in relation to that of your attacker, at what angle the technique should be applied and how to protect yourself from a second attack are all questions which relate back to an understanding of anatomy and physiology. Movement and the application or defense of a technique, are only effective when applied to a specific part of the body to elicit a specific result. The same is true for effective blocking techniques and the application of atemi. As the same technique or attack will vary depending on the height, weight, age, strength, sex and the experience of the attacker, so should the response. Subtle changes in movement and style of an attack, based on these variables, require subtle changes in the center of gravity,balance (kuzushi), position (tae sabaki), distance(maai), and angle of the response.

In truth, all martial arts systems are built around the strengths and weaknesses of the human anatomy and physiology. They are built around one individual’s ability to manipulate and capitalize on the weaknesses and errors of another individual. It is these sciences that form the basis for the study of human motion ,an understanding of which is essential for all students of the martial arts.

The Nature of Gold

One of the most interesting things about gold is its number of uses. Certainly, gold has been and is used in jewelry. It has been widely used as actual money in the form of coins or as the standard for which paper money has been valued. It is also used in dentistry and medicine. As an excellent conductor of electricity, it has been used as wire and in the connectors of wires in everything from audio and video cables to the contacts in the production of computers and jet engines. Gold has uses in photography, medicine, ceramics, the production of colored glass as well as being used as a protective coating on satellites and in jet fighter planes.

Naturally the use of gold that we are most familiar with is that of jewelry. In that capacity, gold has been used as an ornament or piece of jewelry as far back as 2600BC. Because it is highly malleable it is relatively easy to work with and can be shaped into an infinite variety of shapes and designs. Pure gold, of course, is called 24karat, kt or fine gold. As fine gold it is generally used in the stamping and production of gold coins, but is too soft to use in the fabrication of jewelry. In this use it is mixed with other metals, called alloys, which change its hardness, give it a variety of colors and by changing its melting point allows it to be mixed with, welded to and altered or worked on in a variety of ways. When mixed with these alloys, the amount of fine gold used in any one piece of jewelry is reduced. This proportion of fine gold to alloy gives the jewelry its designation as either 10,14,18 or 22kt.

The largest consumer of gold in the world, India, produces most of their jewelry in 22kt. Most jewelry in the United States is produced in either 10,14,or 18kt gold. As a percentage of fine gold 22kt is .916%, 18kt .75%, 14kt. .583% and 10kt .416%. Depending on its country of origin a piece of jewelry may be stamped either the number percentage or the Kt. as in .75 or .75kt in instead of 18kt. Today, laws all over the world require that all gold manufactured as jewelry must be stamped to reflect its true karat. Thus all gold used in the manufacture of jewelry must be “plumb gold”, meaning that the gold stamp must reflect the actual gold content in the ring. As an example, all gold stamped 18kt must be at least .75% fine gold or 24kt gold. Gold imported into the United States if tested by US Customs and found not to be “plumb is usually seized and the manufacturer fined and or restricted from importing more jewelry into the United States. A jewelry manufacturer in the United States found to be producing jewelry not within these guidelines is usually fined, as it is a crime.

Among the most common alloys used in the fabrication of gold for jewelry are silver, copper and brass. Nickel was also used for many years especially in the production of white gold, but due to its toxicity it has been mostly replaced with a variety of white metals like antimony, tin and zinc. The percentages of each of these metals used in the alloy when combined with fine gold give the different karat gold’s their distinctive color. They are, for example what makes 18kt gold look different from 14kt gold and what gives the jewelry industry the ability to create a “white” gold from a metal which, in its natural state, is quite yellow.

Since almost the beginning of time, from Egypt to Rome and throughout the rest of the world, gold has been prized and valued for its beauty. While it has many uses in industry, electronics and medicine, it is the feel and look of gold worn or given to someone which has given the world its greatest pleasure.